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LGS Language FAQThe verb to bein the context of transitivity©1998/2005 LanGServices There has been inquiry about the verb to be, in the context of transitivity.
1.Transitive Verbs vs. Linking VerbsA transitive verb is a verb that can take an object, such as "tell" (e.g., tell a story--the terms in italics constituting a "noun phrase" which is the object of the verb). The verb to be is not called a transitive verb, but a linking verb, or, in more classically grammatical terms, a copula. That is, be links two terms.
2.The Complement Following Transitive and Linking VerbsSo, whereas what usually follows a transitive verb is an object, which is directly related to this verb, what follows a linking verb (of which class be is the representative par excellence) is directly related to the subject of be (not to be, the verb, which is only functioning as a link between the two, subject and subjective complement--thus the denomination linking verb).
3. Linking Verbs May Be Followed (equally well) by Nouns or AdjectivesAnother contrast that can help you feel the difference between a transitive and a linking verb is that the former can only take a noun (or noun phrase or clause) as its complement, while the latter can be followed by either a noun (or noun phrase) or an adjective--e.g., He is intelligent (adjective); He is very rich (adjective modified by adverb); He is a king (noun phrase); He is Mark or This man is Mark (noun); They are soldiers (noun).
4.The Inclusion of an Adverb in the Complement Following a VerbNext are a few observations to ensure that the above is clearly understood. In contrast to a linking verb, a transitive verb cannot take an adjective as a complement. Non-linking verbs (transitive and intransitive--the latter taking no object as complement, such as to sleep), in turn, may be followed by adverbs (which could inadvertently be confused with adjectives), but may not be followed by adjectives. E.g.:He slept well.; He told the story graciously.; He told the story very graciously.; He slept extremely well.
5. Modification by an Adjective in Transitive or Linking Verb ConstructionsAnother point not to be confused here is that fact that the noun used as object of a transitive verb may be modified by an adjective (e.g., He told an amusing story). But this adjective is not the object of the verb, though it is part of the object, since it is part of the noun phrase constituting the object; yet, the head of the noun phrase is the noun. In addition, the adjective modifying the noun in a noun phrase may or may not be modified by an adverb. E.g.: He brought some delicious apples; He brought extremely delicious apples. (NB: some is an indefinite pronoun with an adjectival function here) Adjectival modification regarding a noun following a linking verb is also possible (in the same way as for a noun following a transitive verb, for the quality of the noun phrase, whether object of a transitive verb or subjective complement in a linking verb construction, remains unaltered). E.g.: These are delicious apples.; These are extremely delicious apples.
6. Complementation by an Adjective (as alternative to a noun)--only possible in linking verb constructionsWhat was mentioned in [3] above can be better appreciated after [4] and [5]. In a linking verb construction it is equally possible to say (A)He is a man.; (B)He is an intelligent man.; (c)He is intelligent.; (D)He is very intelligent.; and (E)He is a very intelligent man. (the subjective complements being, respectively, (A)noun, (B)noun modified by adjective, (C)adjective, (D)adjective modified by adverb, (E)noun modified by adjective modified by adverb). But whereas it is also possible to say (a)He told a story., and (b)He told an amusing story., it is not possible to say (c)*He told amusing., nor (d) *He told very amusing., though it is possible to say (e)He told a very amusing story. (for in (a), (b) and (e) there is a noun, which is not only the head of the noun phrase, but also the object of the verb to tell). (NB: It is conventional in linguistics to place an asterisk right before a construction that is ungrammatical or unaccepted, as are (c) and (d) above. )
7. A Word on Linguistic JargonIt should be added that, technically--i.e., strictly from a syntactical viewpoint--a noun is a noun phrase, just a noun phrase void in the slots reserved for article, adjective and other possible ingredients in a noun phrase. The term noun has been used above, in addition to noun phrase, just to avoid an eventual obscurity that the specialized jargon might bring to the explanation.
8. Linking Verbs--Now in the light of my own research work including language, time and cognition(whenever used for the first time, my own jargon appears in bold type) Linking verbs either identify an entity or relate an entity with a class or a quality. This is done and either on a tempero-dynamic or on a tempero-inert basis. If on a tempero-dynamic basis, it is felt that the identification or relationship remains valid for some time-interval (a now of whatever duration--think of the Heideggerian nows). In addition, it is felt as if renewed as time progresses during the time-interval in which that particular now persists. If on a tempero-inert basis, it is felt that the identification or relationship remains valid while a number of nows may roll by, concerning other events or identifications/relationships, which, considering our cognitive limitations in view of time perception, may give us the idea of infiniteness, although not necessarily being so. In other words, in the former, it is felt that the identification or relationship moves or unfolds in time, whereas in the latter, it is felt that the identification or relationship moves or unfolds with time (and for this reason, the passing of time is not perceived). E.g.: She is ill may stand for her being ill in the present now and having been ill for a few previous nows so far (and/or being ill for a few nows yet to follow); or it may simply mean she suffers from some chronic complication. A way of expressing the difference in English is by means of using a noun (modified by the adjective) as subjective complement (instead of the adjective alone), the former conveying tempero-staticity: She is an ill girl (She is a happy girl would sound a more likely sentence to be heard--but the structure is the same). To say She is always ill, in contrast, still conveys tempero-dynamicity (the always implying a constant renewal, i.e., succession, of such nows). Two more aspects, besides the subjective complement being a noun or an adjective, are at stake (concerning the tempero-dynamic or -inert aspect of the linking construction): the status of the entity itself, that is identified or related, and the type of quality or attribute at stake (in the case of adjectives). Both Sausalito is a city and Sausalito is beautiful are tempero-inert due to the fact that the subject of the verb, Sausalito, is not felt to move, unfold in time, but with time--in other words, to us, who experience Sausalito, it feels as if it is always there. (On the other hand, because beauty may be an unstable attribute, as it may decay or be lost with age or wear, the utterance Sausalito is beautiful may gain a tempero-dynamic quality in a context such as that of an inhabitant of Sausalito saying so at Christmas time, and moved to say so because of the Xmas decorations, which have made the city look more charming than usual.) By the same token, He is intelligent. is not felt to move, unfold in time, but with time--that is, one's intelligence quotient is an attribute that is not usually alterable (once unfolded, it seems to remain so throughout the unfolding and enfolding of other possible attributes regarding the same entity--and other entities as well). The same goes for He is tall--once that tallness is unfolded (in adulthood) it cannot usually suffer alterations. Thus, not only the class of speech (noun or adjective) used in the subjective complement is of relevance here, but also the quality or status we attribute the subject and the kind of quality or attribute we identify/relate the subject with, as regards movement or unfolding in time. So, although traditional grammar says nothing regarding what is in the paragraphs above, there are in reality tempero-dynamic and tempero-inert linking verb constructions, depending on the subjective complement (noun or adjective, and in the latter case still depending on the kind of quality or attribute it is), and on the status attributed the subject.
9. On The Example You SubmittedAfter all, "to be" is transitive, As you can now see, the use of transitive is not technically correct here. I believe you can find the right term to use, after the exposition above. But since I am at it, I'll give a suggestion, which of course you may or not wish to use. My suggestion is ...be establishes an identity or a relationship... The term identity would suffice to your purposes, a priori. However, you later refer to the image in the mirror, which, if on the one hand is an identity, unquestionably, on the other hand it is a relationship, for the identity holds up to a certain degree only, the image being virtual (notwithstanding the symmetries you mentioned).
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